YUNGDRUNG BON

 

The Yungdrung Bön Tradition

Yungdrung Bön, meaning ‘Eternal Light’ or ‘Enlightened Teaching’, is the original and authentic spiritual tradition of Tibet. It is based on the principle of practising unconditional love and compassion towards all and is Thegpa Chenpo or Mahayana in its approach. Many of the teachings are similar to those found in the four principal schools of Buddhism, especially the Nyingma-pa school, and are aimed at enabling all to access Enlightenment and freedom from the shackles of Samsara. The most obvious points of differentiation between the schools would appear to be in their points of origination, the number of refuge objects and in the nomenclature employed in relation to the deities and Jang-chub Sempas (Bodhisattvas).

Origination

Whereas general Buddhism relates back to the teachings of Buddha Shakyamuni, (who lived approximately two and a half thousand years ago), Yungdrung Bön traces its lineage directly back to its founder, Bhuddha Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche, who came and taught in Wolmo Loong Ring (otherwise known as Shambala) over 18,000 years ago. From there his teachings spread around the world in different guises, being introduced into Tibet from the neighbouring country of Zhang-Zhung - which includes western Tibet and Gangchen Tisi (Mount Kailash).

The Refuge Objects

In Buddhism one finds three Refuge Objects: (1) Sangye (Buddha), (2) Chö (Dharma) and (3) Ghe-dhun (Sangha); Bönpos have four Refuge Objects: (1) Sang-gye (Enlightened Ones), (2) Bön (Enlightened Teachings), (3) Shenrab (Spiritual Heroes / Heroines) and (4) The Lama, who embodies the previous three.

Nomenclature

In ancient times the Greeks and Romans often related to the same deities but would call them by different names – e.g. the Greeks would refer to the messenger of the Gods as ‘Hermes’ and the Romans would refer to him as ‘Mercury’. A similar situation exists between Yungdrung Bön and general Buddhism. If we take for example, the great Bön Teacher Sherab Mawei-Seng-ghe, the Buddhist equivalent is Manjushri. Represented iconographically, they are practically identical. Even amongst general Buddhist schools, this anomaly is in evidence – e.g. where Indian Buddhists might refer to Manjushri, Tibetan Buddhists might refer to Jampei-yang (Jam-yang for short). Similarly all schools anticipate the coming of the future Buddha – Tonpa Chi-med Jam-dhen - or Buddha Maitreya -as he is more commonly known.

Central Beliefs

Central to the Yungdrung Bön belief system is the notion of Samsara, or cyclic existence, whereby sentient beings go through a succession of re-births within the various modes or realms of existence. The type of birth which one takes within Samsara is believed to be determined by the karma, which one has accumulated over previous life-times.

The ultimate aim of all sentient beings is considered to be to achieve Sang-gye (Enlightenment), thus liberating themselves permanently from the suffering of Samsara, with a view to helping others do the same.

The teachings of Yungdrung Bön aim to provide the practitioner with various methods and wisdom to cope with and transform life’s challenges, ultimately with a view to attaining Enlightenment. They are contained in the Bön Theg-pa Rim-gu (The Nine Gradual Views of Bön), Bön Go-zhi Zöd-nga (The Four Portals and Treasure as the Fifth) or Bön Chi-nang Sang-soom  (The External, Internal and Secret Bön).

These are practised through the three different paths of Pang-lam (the Renunciation Path, which is the path most commonly followed by monks and nuns), Gyur-lam (the Transformation or Tantric Path) and Drol-lam (the Liberation Path – also known as the ‘Direct Path’ since, through it, one neither has to renounce nor transform one’s negative experiences as with the other two, but can simply liberate them by applying Ta-Gom-Chhöd Soom (the View, Meditation and Characteristic Behaviour of Dzogchen). Within Dro-lam, it is possible to realize Ja-lu Wö-ku Chen-po  (The Great Rainbow Light Body) i.e Enlightenment in this very life and body.

Practical Relevance

Q: What then does such an ancient, esoteric spiritual tradition have to offer in these modern times?

Through time immemorial, mankind has engaged in the pursuit of happiness, but happiness is an elusive concept. How often does one achieve the goal, which is believed will provide happiness, only to find such happiness disappear shortly afterwards? This may be because people tend to define happiness in a very limiting way and thus spend much of their lives chasing after illusions of happiness – a bit like the mirage of the oasis in the desert which disappears when the spot is eventually reached – thus the thirst for happiness is never fully quenched.

The teachings of Yungdrung Bön help us to define what constitutes true happiness and to look at the obstacles which prevent us from achieving it. They then provide us with a ‘tool kit’ with which to tackle and surmount all obstacles – thus putting happiness firmly within the grasp of all. With this kit, we can at last turn on the inexhaustible water tap to quench the thirst - thus achieving a greater sense of fulfilment and inner contentment. 

The hectic pace at which most people in modern society live their lives in these modern times, often gives rise to stress-related or psychosomatic conditions, which lead many to seek solutions in modern medicine, psychotherapy, psychology or psychiatry, new age therapies and so on. However, upon closer inspection one can identify that many such therapies may have their roots in ancient spiritual traditions, such as Yungdrung Bön, and are simply ‘packaged’ differently.

Yungdrung Bön teachings emphasise taming the Mind in order to effect inner changes - thus providing one with a philosophy of life geared at developing positive ways of thinking and transforming even the most extreme and adverse of life experiences into something positive from which to grow!

DZOG-CHEN
(The Great Completion)


TEACHINGS ON THE PHENOMENA
OF THE

NATURE OF THE MIND!!!



The founder of Yungdrung Bon, Teacher Tonpa Shenrab Miwoche, has taught "Bon Theg-pa Rim-gu" (The Nine Gradual Views of Bon). Within the nine, the ninth is The Supreme View, known as Dzogchen. Dzogchen is the direct and swift path. According to its view, unlike other paths and their respective views, Dzogchen practitioners (Dzogchen-pa) could apply the one single pointedness view (Thig-li Nyag-chik kyi Tawa) for total realization. This means that Dzogchen-pa could attain "The Great Rainbow Light Body" (Jalu Wod-ku Chenpo) here within this life & body!

This View is not just a concept but, historically, many Dzogchen-pas, including the 20th century Master, Sharza Tashi Gyaltsen (1855-1935), have attained this. Its teaching is all about discovering ones own "Nature of The Mind" (Sem-kyi Ne-luk) as the Core Meditation.

Lama Khemsar Rinpoche's A-Z curriculum is designed and geared towards discovering one's own Nature of The Mind! A written curriculum is available to those who have received teachings from him.

Dzogchen teaching sounds exciting and easy to many, but one must distinguish between the Dzogchen View and the Dzogchen-pa. The Dzogchen View (The Nature of The Mind) does not need purification nor the accumulation of merits BUT, for the Dzogchen-pa, who has accumulated negative karma (bak-chak) in the past, purification of karma is a MUST. In the past this teaching was never taught in public as we do today and, in fact, there were times where the teaching was taught from one master to only one disciple. The main reason behind keeping Dzogchen teaching secret is out of concern that it might be misconstrued as a fast track to Enlightenment. It is actually not suitable for everyone unless the Dzogchen-pa takes it very seriously and follows it through to completion.

Receiving philosophical Dzogchen teachings is not enough on its own. One has to actually practice the Teachings by following the Master's carefully graded instructions in order to experience realization.

In one sense it is very fortunate (good karma) and worthwhile for one to receive such teaching during this most Rare and Precious Human Birth. On the other hand, it is essential to understand the teaching, including its Tawa (view), Gompa (meditation) and Chod-pa (characteristic), properly and practice accordingly. Otherwise one could experience reverse effect such as building additional ego!!!

There is always the possibility of misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the teaching. Going around and talking about teachings, including Dzogchen, is not at all the way. Practicing in an invisible way, regularly, diligently and persistently, is necessary! To do this, one must have an authentic Master with whom regular contact must be maintained on various levels, including engaging in spiritual consultations with him or her.

Whilst covering various levels of Dzogchen, including aspects of Semdhe (mental), Longdhe (spatial) and Men-ngakdhe (esoteric) instruction classes, Lama Khemsar Rinpoche will give DIRECT TIPS on practical Dzogchen Meditation, cutting through philosophical layers!

From day one, when Lama Khemsar Rinpoche received "The Special Tip" from his Master, he remarked that "he felt as if he was transferred from a slow moving passenger train to a super sonic Jet!"

BON DZOG-CHEN NGON-DRO
(Foundation Teachings)

As with learning anything new, it is essential to have a starting point, or foundation, upon which to build, and this is the primary purpose of the Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro Foundation Teachings. It is through them that we are introduced to the hooks upon which to hang all of the subsequent teachings. Rinpoche points out that it is during the Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro that one is given all the background information and introduced to the different deities, practices and so on. It therefore follows that one is at a distinct disadvantage if one has not completed them, prior to proceeding to more advanced teachings, since the necessary hooks will be lacking. Also as these are the foundations upon which all the other teachings are built, it is essential to ensure that they are strong and capable of supporting further ‘building’ and this is achieved through regular practice. Without this, Rinpoche says,“It is like building a house on a frozen lake. When the ice melts……!!!!!”


Rinpoche advises that traditionally the more advanced teachings are only imparted to those whose mind-streams are sufficiently ripened to benefit from them, since there is no point in pouring clean /clear water into a dirty or cracked vessel, where it is likely to be sullied or to leak out. Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro helps purify and seal the vessel – thus helping the student prepare the mind and clear away the obscurations which could impede further progress.


The Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro Teachings are divided into Outer, Inner and Secret Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro. The Outer Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro covers Lho-Dhok Nam-Zhi (The Four Thought Transformations) where one is taught about the preciousness of human birth, the impermanence of life, Karma (the Law of Cause and Effect), and the benefit of the Liberation Path which helps us release ourselves from the suffering of Samsara (Cyclic Existence).


Although the number of Inner Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro differs among the various traditions, all such Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro are generally considered mutually acceptable by Lamas of the different traditions. In the Inner Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro, Rinpoche teaches Nine Foundations (Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro gu) as follows:


1) Sem-kyed:Meditation on the generation on the Enlightened / Compassionate Mind/Bodhichitta.


2) & 3)Kyab-dro & Chak: Seeking Refuge through the Refuge Objects and purifying one's karma through prostrations.


4) Yig-gya: A purification practice based on the meditative recitation of a mantra of 100 syllables.


5) Mandal Bulwa: The accumulation of further merit through symbolic Mandala offerings.


6) Lamei Neljor: The Aspirational meditative practice for achieving the Lama’s body, mind, speech and wisdom-knowledge empowerments!


7,8 & 9) Nying-po Nam Soom: Meditative practice of the three Mantras:Sale Wöd, Matri and Du-tri Su - these three mantras being the consolidated essence of all the teachings of Yungdrung Bön.


Secret Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro is what is experienced and realised through the practice of Outer and Inner Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro.


The Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro teachings given by Rinpoche are derived from the Bön-Po’s popular teaching Aa-trid whose commentary, ‘Aa-trid Kaloong Gya-tsho’, compiled & composed by Sharza Tashi Gyaltsen (1855-1935). Aa-trid is one of the three streams of Bönpo Dzogchen teachings (Aa-trid, Nyen-gyud & Dzogchen). Sharza Tashi Gyaltsen achieved Jalu Wöd-ku Chen-po (The Great Rainbow Light Body) in 1935. Sharza Rinpoche was one of the Masters of the late Neljor Tsondru Gyaltsen Rinpoche, who was one of Lama Khemsar Rinpoche’s Root Lamas.

As previously mentioned, Rinpoche stresses the importance of Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro teachings to those who sincerely wish to make spiritual progress. Without his students having received such teachings, he feels it would be like casting seeds on stony ground. The Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro teachings serve to plough and fertilise the field in readiness for the seeds to be sown to grow to fruition, and for the harvest to be reaped. He stresses that by attending the Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro teachings more than once, each repetition gives rise to a new depth of insight and one’s unripened stream of mind becomes increasingly ripened. As the seedling, which travels up through the soil and constantly reaches out to the warmth of the element sun, is nourished by each new dawn until it eventually ripens to fruition so, those who repeatedly attend and practice the Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro teachings receive nourishment from them and will surely flourish.

 

ZHI-NEY
(CALM ABIDING )

A STEPPING-STONE TO DZOG-CHEN

Rinpoche teaches Zhi-ney (Calm Abiding) and gives an introduction to Dzogchen (The Great Completion).
Dzogchen, the practice of the Nature of the Mind, is the supreme and most esoteric practice of Tibet’s Yungdrung Bön spiritual tradition and, it is said that, by engaging in this practice, it is possible to attain enlightenment in this very lifetime. It is believed that there are three paths to Enlightenment: Pang-lam (Renunciation Path), Gyur-lam (Transformation Path), and Drol-lam (Liberation Path). Dzogchen is the path of Liberation, or the ‘Direct Path,’ since through it, one neither has to renounce nor transform one’s negative experiences but can simply liberate them by applying Ta-gom-Chöd Soom (the View, Meditation and Characteristic Behaviour) of Dzogchen thus freeing oneself from Samsara (the Cycle of Existence). Through Drol-lam, it is possible to realise Jalu Wö-ku Chen-po (the Great Rainbow Light Body) in this very life and body. In order to do this, one has to be introduced to the Natural State of the Mind – the state of absolute knowledge, which exists as a potentiality in all sentient beings. Rinpoche stresses that the aim of our meditation practices is to reach Treg-chöd Meditation (cutting through illusionary resistance), which is a Dzogchen Practice. To graduate to this stage, one must take progressive steps commencing with Zhi-ney, Nyam-zhak, Lhak-thong etc.
During this teaching, Rinpoche will provide ‘keys’ to open the door to the natural state of the mind – a major key being through Zhi-ney (Calm Abiding) - the first rung on the meditation ladder. This is a form of meditation which creates a stable mind capable of focusing single-pointedly on emptiness or any other phenomenon. The nature of Zhi-ney is explained in depth and
Rinpoche leads the participants through each of the various stages of this practice – ensuring that all participants are given ample opportunity to practice and perfect the techniques. Rinpoche stresses that one must practise Zhi-ney regularly if full benefit is to be obtained and one is to be fully prepared for experiencing the Nature of the Mind.
Rinpoche emphasises that traditionally, the ultimate teachings of Dzogchen are imparted only to those individuals whose mind streams are sufficiently ripened to benefit from them, since there is little point in pouring clean water into a dirty or cracked vessel where it is likely to be sullied or leak out. Thus it is necessary for the practitioner to ensure that his or her ‘vessel’ is clean and intact. He therefore generally restricts the Zhi-ney and Dzogchen teachings to those who have received and are practising Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro (Foundation Teachings) since these are the foundations upon which all the other teachings are built – thus it is essential to ensure that these foundations are strong and capable of supporting further ‘building’. This is done through regular practice. Without this, it would be like building a house on a frozen lake. When the ice melts…!!!!!

In these modern times, Rinpoche has noted that there is a tendency for people – especially in the western world – to demand immediate gratification. With this in mind, he is understandably concerned lest people view Dzogchen as a ‘quick fix’ to instant enlightenment and emphasises that, if the planted seed is to grow to fruition, it requires to be tended, nourished and watered with care – thus regular practice is essential. Neglect to do this, he says, results in puny – if any – growth. Yes, through Dzogchen it is possible to attain Enlightenment in this life-time, however, he suggests that we should remember the fable of the tortoise and the hare, where they both set off from the same starting point, but it was the slow and steady approach of the tortoise which resulted in him reaching the goal first – and still in this life-time.

Finally, Rinpoche says, ”We have Dzogchen practitioners in Tibet who have no idea what they are doing, but are expert at talking about Dzogchen. Such people are called Dzogchen kha-jangpa (Dzogchen chatter-boxes) in other words, they know the theory, but are all talk and no practice. They thus merely delude themselves and thereby impede their own progress.

 

MA-GYUD (MOTHER TANTRA)

Gyud, or Tantra, is one of the most profound teachings in the Yungdrung Bön tradition. Such teachings take place against a backdrop of belief in the notion of Samsara (Cyclic Existence), whereby sentient beings go through a succession of rebirths within the various modes of existence. The type of birth which one takes within Samsara is believed to be determined by the karma one has accumulated over previous lifetimes. The ultimate aim of all sentient beings is said to be to liberate themselves permanently from the suffering of Samsara. This is done by achieving Sang-gye (Enlightenment) / Buddha-hood. It is believed that liberation from Samsara may be achieved through three paths:

Pang–lam – the Renunciation Path

Gyur-lam – the Transformation Path (known as Ngag in Tibetan or Tantra in Sanskrit)

Drol-lam – the Liberation Path.

Of the three paths, Gyur-lam and Drol-lam are the most subtle and difficult. Unlike Panglam, which is the safest path – generally taking many life-times for the attainment of Enlightenment – Gyur-lam and Drol-lam have the great advantage of allowing the practitioner to attain Enlightenment in this very life and body.

Ngag or Tantra, if practiced authentically through kyed-rim and Dzog-rim, will result in gradual physical and emotional transformation.Thus Enlightenment can be achieved by following practices which have been very carefully prescribed and passed down through the centuries. In selecting a tantric teacher, one should take care to ensure that one is being taught by a fully qualified Lama who stands in the unbroken succession of the Masters of the Teaching.


Tantric masters give their teachings in three main way ways:
Wang (Empowerment) – through which the master empowers the student to meditate on a deity etc.
Loong (Transmission) – in which the master bestows the blessing of the text containing the tantric teachings.
Trid (Instruction) – whereby the master explains the method of practising the particular teaching.

During the teaching, Rinpoche covers vital meditative points, such as one’s ‘Nature of the Mind’ from the Ma-gyud text entitled ‘Ma-gyud Thug-je Nyi-mei Drol-lam Rin-chen Phur-kyen’. He also introduces his students to the Kyil-khor (mandala), the Lha-tsog (pantheon) and the Yi-dams (personal deities) - in the case of Ma-gyud Gong-Chhöd Nam-som, the Yab (male figure) being Yi-dam Sang-chok Gyal-po and the Yum (female figure) being Kha-dro Kye-ma Wöd-tso – both of whom are central to the practice.
Finally he shall impart Ma-gyud’s consolidated practice, known as Ma-gyud Gong-Chhöd Nam-som (The Threefold Nature Practice of Mother Tantra) - thus providing the student with tantric keys with which to open the door to Enlightenment / Buddha-hood. It is then up to the student whether he or she shall be able to turn the key in the lock in order to effect the transformation. The ‘oil’ which eases the turning of the key, or the transformation process, is that of sustained practice.

NAM-JOM JHAB-TRUD HEALING

As with many eastern traditions, Yungdrung Bon makes it clear that all illness is derived from past karma and that this manifests through both root and secondary causes. Regardless of the nature of the illness, Nam-jom Jhab-trud healing acts as a panacea for all ills and is like a master key that opens all doors towards the healing process. The administration of the Nam-jom Jab-trud healing is carried out by the Lama in public during weekends as well as can be requested privately.


PHOWA
(TRANSFERENCE OF CONSCIOUSNESS)

Before proceeding to Phowa itself, it might be useful to set it in context.
Central to Bön Teachings is the notion of Samsara or Cyclic Existence whereby sentient beings go through a succession of rebirths within the various modes or realms of existence. It is believed that there are six realms of existence – 3 higher and 3 lower. The higher realms consist of humans, gods and demi-gods and the lower realms consist of animals, hungry ghosts and hell-beings. The type of birth which one takes in Samsara is said to be determined by the karma which one has accumulated in this (and previous) life-times. The ultimate aim of all sentient beings is viewed as being to liberate themselves permanently from the suffering of Samsara and to achieve Sang-gyey (Enlightenment), however, it is believed that departure from Samsara is only possible where one has been born into the human realm since, in all the other realms of existence, beings are unable to recognise ignorance and desire as being the driving forces of Samsara in order to be able to overcome these obstacles. They therefore remain trapped within the cycle of birth and death. What part then does Phowa play in this scenario?
According to Master Gong-Zod Ri-Trod Chenpo, “The profound and esoteric teaching of Phowa is needed by all sentient beings for the achievement of Enlightenment.”
Such teachings cover the dissolution of the body’s elements during the death process and the associated practice of consciously leading the transference of consciousness from the body at the time of death in order to direct it towards Enlightenment. It is however a common misconception that Phowa lends itself exclusively to the dying process since, when we start to truly realise our own impermanence and the inevitability of death, even the most ordinary activities in our daily lives can take on a new hue. Yes, Phowa teachings do indeed cause us to face up to the fact that the only certainty in life is death, however, with this realisation, we are presented with a myriad of golden opportunities – if we wish to avail ourselves of them.
This is the ‘kick-start’ to motivate us to make the most of the chances presented to us through our human births to start to wipe the karmic slate clean by purifying obscurations and mental poisons and generating positive merits. By doing so, not only do we enrich our own lives, but we can also affect positively the lives of those around us – thus Phowa enhances our lives as well as preparing us to handle the death process.
During Phowa retreats, Rinpoche provides the practitioner with both the esoteric exercises of Phowa (Bon Dzogchen Ngon-dro and Ngo-zhi) and with ample opportunity to rehearse and become well grounded in the practical application of Phowa (Je-kyi Ja-wa). These exercises include energy work on the central channel and this is believed to have a very beneficial effect on our own health and to help to prolong the lifespan of the practitioner. More importantly however, by practising regularly, Phowa practitioners ensure that, when death strikes, they are in the position to retain and hold the rudder, which enables them to increase their chances of steering their ship of consciousness safely through the transition stages of Bardo (the intermediate stage between death and life) toward the shore of Enlightenment.


CHÖD PRACTICE: Khadroi Ghe-gyang
(The Sky Walker's Laughing-Dance)

Chöd, or Lu-jin, is one of the most subtle and sophisticated concepts of Tibetan spiritual practice. Chöd literally means 'severing' and Lu-jin means 'giving away one's body'. Both terms relate to the concept of surrendering the severed body, without attachment, in a characteristic ritual manner of laughter and dancing. The core purpose behind Chöd is to sever one’s ego . This practice is generally carried out by means of visualisation (although occasionally by request in Tibet and other Himalayan regions), it can be performed on an actual dead body as part of a funeral rite - this involving no sacrifice of life whatsoever.

The original concept of this teaching is to be found in Tibet’s pre-Buddhist spiritual tradition, Yungdrung Bön. Other Buddhist schools also have a tradition of Chöd introduced to them by the female Master Ma-chik Lab-dron (1044-1143) who is believed to be a disciple of Pha dam-pa Sang-gye.

According to Yungdrung Bön, Chöd was originally taught by Yum-chen Sherab Jyam-ma (The Great Loving Wisdom Mother) and passed down through successive masters till the present day. Some of these masters are reputed to have received visionary or aural transmissions (nyen-gyud) direct from male and female deities. Trul-ku Tro-nyen Gyaltsen was one such master. He received the two volumes of Tro-nyen Nyen-gyud in such a manner in 1386.

In Yungdrung Bon, there are numerous chöd practices such as Kha-dro Sang-chöd, Nyen-sa Lam-kyer from Ma-gyud including Kha-droi Göng-chöd in Ma-gyud Göng-chöd Namsoom and Khadroi Ghe –gyang.
Khadroi ghe–gyang is one of the most popular practices and is embraced by Bonpos and Buddhists alike - particularly in eastern and western Tibet. This practice was composed by the great Bonpo scholar and 20th century Zogchen Master, Shar-za Tashi Gyaltsen (1858-1935) who attained Jha-lu Wöd-ku Chen-po (The Great Rainbow Light Body) - dissolving into light and leaving only his hair and nails.

This is one of his many of teachings - which are to be found in Zöd-nga (The Five Treasures) - including Yang-szab Nam-kha Zod-chen (The Surpassingly Refined Great Treasure of Infinite Sky). He composed this at the request of many of his devoted disciples - including Ngag-tsun Tra-nya - who initiated the request by offering a precious silver mandala to his Master, with a traditional, spotless scarf. In the concluding part of the text, the composer dedicated it to help all sentient beings who call upon his secret name - Sharzai Ja-drel Rigpa Rang-shar - to attain enlightenment.

Sharza Rinpoche, as he is more commonly known, was one of Tibet’s pioneer Masters of re-med (non-sectarian teachers) in the 20th Century.
Yungdrung Bon, regards Chöd or Lu-jin as being one of the most subtle and sophisticated meditational practices. It can be practised at different levels, from novice to advanced, according to the Chöd-pa / Chöd -ma's (male or female Chöd practitioner's) ability. Unfortunately, there has been a tendency, by some westerners, to compare and confuse Chöd or Lu-jin with neolithic and shamanic rites involving blood sacrifice. It is to be stressed that this comparison is totally erroneous and is based on a complete misconception which fails to recognise that this practice is carried out entirely by means of symbolic visualisation by the Chöd-pa / Chöd-ma, who visualises him / herself as offering his / her own body, with complete non-attachment, as a selfless act of generosity, to pay off karmic debts for the benefit of all sentient beings. It ought not therefore to be compared with the practices of some shamans - past and present - who practice the actual blood sacrifice of animals and humans in some of their ceremonial rites. It is thought that this misconception may have arisen by some westerners misunderstanding an aspect of Chöd or Lu-jin where, in exceptional circumstances, and by request, the rite can be used to dispose of a corpse - involving no slaughter of life whatsoever.